FRANKLUGERT – IMMIGRANT AND PIONEER

Researched and compiled by Terri Lewis Stern, great granddaughter ofFrank Lugert.

BOHEMIA TO AMERICA

Frank Lugert has been described as one ofKiowa County’s most colorful pioneers and his story is one of typical immigrantcourage.  He was born May 31, 1869 inthe small village of Zebau (Czech name Cebiv) in the mountains of Bohemia.  Today’s maps will show the town on thewestern side of the Czech Republic, near the border with Germany.  The family must have moved to the nearbyvillage of Leskau (Czech name Lestkov) before Frank left.  I came to this conclusion since hisdaughters claim Leskau as his native village and local parish records showFrank’s parents died there.  Both townslie east of Prague, near Marienbad (Czech name Marienske Lazne).  At the time of Frank’s birth, the area waspart of the Austrian Empire.  Formerly acrown colony of Austria, Bohemia was a region with both German andCzech-speaking citizens.  The Lugertswere German speaking, and the surname is a common one in Germany today.  Frank Lugert’s family has been traced inthis area back through parish records to Paul Lugerth born in 1625, through theefforts of Deb Lugert Torgrimson, who descends from Frank’s brother, Joe.  One of eight children born to Mathias andTheresia Lugert, Frank and three siblings immigrated to America.   His only formal education was in Austriabefore he left.  When interviewed byreporters later in life, Frank described a colorful childhood in which he“worked with his uncle hunting wild boar and herding swine from Russia toAustria.”  (It’s more likely that thiswas Prussia, which lies 30 miles to the north, instead of Russia, which washundreds of miles away.  An easy tounderstand mistake on the reporter’s part, given Frank’s accent.)  At 13, Frank was sent by his parents tocross the Atlantic to join his older brother Joe, who himself had immigratedwhen he was 12.  The Lugert boys were partof a mass chain migration of German Bohemians to Minnesota and Wisconsin, whichbegan in the early 1850’s to escape the rising tensions and threat ofconscription.   The Austrian armyconscripted boys as young as 12, so it’s no wonder Matthias and Theresia Lugertencouraged their sons to immigrate to America.  

In an interview by the Kiowa County StarReview for the county’s 50^th anniversary in 1951, Frank identifiedHamburg, Germany as the port he left Europe from; and on his naturalizationpapers he put his landing in America on May 9, 1883, just weeks short of hisfourteenth birthday.  Although I can’tverify his port of arrival or the ship’s name, there is much documentation ofhis arrival.  He came with a singlewooden trunk no larger than a cooler you take to a family picnic today.  In it he had a family bible in German thattook up a third of the space and only a few other possessions.  His grandson, Jimmy Jarnagin of Altus,Oklahoma, is the proud owner of the trunk and bible today, which has recordedsignificant family events in Frank’s life, mostly in German.  When he arrived, Frank wore a sign aroundhis neck on his back and his front.  Thesign stated he was an orphan who “must not be harmed” and had directions toFredonia, Wisconsin to join his 19-year old brother Joe.  He spoke no English, and found it a hardlanguage to learn while living in the German settlement in Wisconsin.  He made up his mind to learn, teachinghimself so he could strike out on his own and work at a sawmill.  On May 19, 1885, their brother Charleslanded in America to join Frank and Joe. Frank and Charles lived in Cherokee, Iowa, where Charles settled andboth brothers filed naturalization papers in 1891, renouncing foreverallegiance to the Emperor of Austria. 

LAND OPENINGS IN OKLAHOMA

Frank participated in two of OklahomaTerritory’s historic land openings, the Cherokee Strip Run of 1893 and the 1901land lottery opening part of the Kiowa-Comanche-ApacheIndian Reservation in the southwest corner of Oklahoma.  Stories he told about these events revealmuch about his approach to life.  Before the 1893 run, Frankheard from a friend that only the good riders would have a chance.  So he bought a pony especially for the runand practiced daily on a racetrack at Guthrie until he became an expert rider.  He beat other riders to stake a claim on a farm seven miles east ofPerry. 

Frank sold the farm outside Perry he’dacquired in the 1893 run and moved into town where he tended bar and becameproprietor of a general store and saloon. The 1900 Census for Noble County lists his occupation as “Saloon Barman.”   His younger sister, Theresia, who had comeover in 1891 at the age of 16, joined him in Perry and kept house for thebachelor Frank until his marriage.  OnJanuary 14, 1895, 24-year old Frank and 19-year old Katie Malaske were marriedin the Catholic Church at Perry.  Katiewas born in New York state, the daughter of Polish immigrants, John LawrenceMalaske (originally “Chmielecki”)and his wife Barbara Ostrowski.  Three children, Theresa, Frank, Jr., andCatherine, were born in Perry, living in a nice two-story home that sold for$600 when they left Perry.  A thirddaughter, Marguerite, was born in 1910 after the move to Kiowa County.  

In 1901 he decided to have a try at theKiowa-Comanche-Apache opening and registered for the lottery at El Reno.  The land of the Comanche, Kiowa and PlainsApache tribes had been leased to Cattlemen for cattle range for severalyears.  Under the Jerome Agreement, theIndians were allotted their homesteads and the remainder of the area wasavailable for settlement by others.  Thelands in the Kiowa-Comanche country were to be decided by land lottery ratherthan a race for claims as in other openings. The people registered at either El Reno or Lawton.  The homesteaders were then determined by thedrawing of an envelope containing the person’s name and address.   Each winner then had the opportunity to“stake his claim in turn” according to the number on his envelope.  Over 160,000 people registered for thechance to obtain a homestead in the drawing. The opening occurred August 1, 1901 and was the last large land openingin the present State of Oklahoma.  Inthe 50^th Anniversary interview, Frank recalled, “I got the second tothe last number in El Reno district, and there wasn’t anything much left.”  A friend working in the land office gave himthe tip that finally meant his getting the farm.  He told him about a quarter section at the foot of the WichitaMountains, and that it showed on the map that it had been filed on, but hehappened to know it hadn’t.  He suggestedFrank make a quick trip to the location and investigate.  He came by horse and buggy, driving day andnight, then left his exhausted horses at Lone Wolf while he hired a liverymanto take him on down to the claim, which was nine miles to the south.  He liked what he saw—a fertile farm with aspring on it and bordering on the river “so I could go fishing if I ever hadtime.”  He was informed an official ofthe Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad was planning to file on thequarter, but he resolved to beat him. He did, by a few hours.

THE TOWN OF LUGERT

After he filed his claim on the 80 acres ofland on October 3, 1901, Frank founded the town by establishing the postoffice.  On his first trip to the newsite, he took the mail with him and distributed it from a tent until his storeand home had been completed.  On October24, 1902, the post office was officially established.  Frank sold out a part of his farm as lots for a town site, and itwas decided that the new town should be named for him.   A thriving agricultural community sprang upalmost overnight and business boomed. In that first year or two several hundred people were attracted to thelittle town.  Courthouse records showthe plat of the Town of Lugert was filed November 15, 1903.  At one time the population is said to havereached 400-500, but Oklahoma State Gazetteers published by R. L. Polk & Cobetween 1909 and 1918 show a population of only 100 in each year published withthe population at 200 in the 1911-1912 edition.  A check of the 1910 and 1920 census shows the Village of Lugertwith 77 individuals in 1910, and 67 in 1920, although many of the 1920 list arefarmers, so it’s unclear whether they really were in the town.

There were no roads, only trails, and the onlyform of transportation was horseback, teams and wagons.  Panhandlers, escaped convicts and horsethieves were common.  The mountains,especially the one known as Flat Top, were reputed to be a hideout foroutlaws.  Occasionally, some would cometo Frank Lugert’s store.  Thoseconsidered the toughest were usually laughing with Frank before they left.  Some of the armed men came in one day anddemanded a drink.  He told them that thebest he could do was the popular patent medicine of the day, “Hostetter’sBilious” which was 70% alcohol.

It’s interesting to note that Frank nevercarried a gun, although many men in the early pioneer days did.  He told a reporter that a friend advised himnot to since the men who did carry guns had made it their business to know howto use them.  He’d be safer without onesince he couldn’t beat them at their own game. 

Businesses flourished,including the Lugert General Store, which had everything needed by the localcommunity.  There were prospectors’supplies, groceries, dry goods, boots, shoes, books, school supplies, patentmedicine, guns and ammunition, blasting supplies, pictures, hardware, stoves,pots and pans, dishes, tubs, washboards, well buckets, pumps, harnesses, axes,hoes, picks, meat, cheese, cracker barrels, cold drinks, cookies andcandy.   My father, Bill Lewis,remembers a barrel of sauerkraut in his grandfather’s store, and Katie Lugert’srecipe for Pork and Sauerkraut lives on as a family favorite, kept alive byCatherine’s daughter, Kathleen Broughton Gragg.  Frank also sold coal and later installed a gasoline pump.  Sugar sold for $4 per 100 pounds or 20pounds for $1.  Rice was 20 pounds for$1.  Coffee was priced at 15 cents perpound for regular coffee, but imported peaberry coffee cost 20 cents perpound.  Always a good businessman, FrankLugert issued small metal tokens, in values of one cent to one dollar, whichwere redeemable only at his store. Apparently, it was a common practice in the Old West to issuestore-unique tokens, as I found when viewing one of the Lugert coins at JerryAdams’ token site on the internet.  Atthe time of its greatest population, in about 1910, Lugert recalls that thedaily receipts for his general store amounted to $500 or $600, huge numbers forthe time.

The little town grew up aroundthe post office, general store and saloon until the town site of over 100 acreswas crowded.  The town’s Marshall,Johnnie Webber, kept law and order. There was one church, the Methodist Episcopal South Church.  Businesses included Borden’s feed and grocery;a billiards hall run by R.C. McCurdy which also served as a dance hall; a meatmarket operated by Noah Hanger and Walter Pruitt; a restaurant owned by Mr. AndMrs. England; Stephenson-Browne Lumber Co. with Howard Arnett, manager; Fieldand Smith Blacksmith shop run by Ed Hodson; the Lugert State Bank with CharlesA. Huber and Joseph Huber president; the Smith Hotel; the Western Oklahoma Ginmanaged by F. E. Gillespie; Mrs. Clara Hill’s Restaurant; HollingsworthHardware; a drug store with Dr. R.S. Kirkland as proprietor; and two dry goodsstores owned by John Stanaland and Houser and Garrison.  In 1908 there were 6700 bushels of shelledcorn shipped from the town of Lugert. This was over and above the amount consumed locally and used to feedstock.  When saloons were voted out ofbusiness in 1905, Mark Saueberg and Frank Lugert operated a liquor store aquarter mile southwest of the Lugert business district.

Pioneers recall the manyparties and dances given by the Lugerts. Their home was the social center of the section.  All were welcome until they showed bymisbehavior they were not entitled to the social amenities.   Then they were tossed out forcibly.

The roadbed for a railroad line, extendingfrom Kansas through Oklahoma into Texas, was completed in 1906, and therailroad track completed in 1907.  TheKansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad came through the center of town.  The town was laid out on a grid of five streetsrunning east to west and six avenues running north to south.  The northernmost street was named WalnutStreet, with Oak, Main, Locust, and Pine Street following it to the south.  The westernmost avenue was Choctaw, followedby Washita, Kiowa, Central, Caddo and Oklahama Avenue.  The little boomtown, called a ‘village’ inthe 1910 census, was never to grow much larger due to a sudden, violent stormat noon on a hot April day in 1912.

LUGERT CYCLONE in 1912

This is how newspaperaccounts were to describe the storm later. “The spring of 1912 was a wet one, and the drought seemed to be broken.The fields were green with growing crops and the orchard was a mass of fragrantpink and white blossoms. Apri1 27, 1912, came hot and sultry and before noonthe sky was a ragged mass of low-lying, leaden clouds. As farmers came in fromthe fields for dinner, jagged lightning flashed out of an ugly bank of cloudsto the southwest, accompanied by rumbles of thunder, which shook theearth.  The noon train was heading forLugert with its giant headlight burning. By then the world around Lugert was dark as night.  Rain gushed out of the approachingcloudbank.  A monotonous roar followedthe burst of heavy rain, and the houses shook under the impact of high winds.  Shortly, all was quiet outside; no wind,rain or thunder.  The storm passeddirectly over Lugert, all you could see was rubble and naked prairie—the townof Lugert had disappeared!” 

The headline in the May 2, 1912 edition of theHobart Republic declared “Violent Tornadoes Swept Kiowa County Saturday—LugertErased From the Map” with the following details:  “Lugert can properly be spoken of only in the past tense.  It was. The cyclone, which struck it Saturday afternoon was complete in its workof destruction.  To give a list of theproperties destroyed would be but to catalogue the houses which composed thetown.”  The engine and coal tenderremained upright on the tracks, but seven cars had been torn from the train anddashed to pieces along the right-of-way. Four intervening cars were on the track, followed by nine additionalwrecked cars and the caboose stood intact on the tracks.  The only building intact was the depot, andthis structure had been blown several feet off its foundation.  The bank, hotel, gins, lumberyard, stores,and residences of the townspeople had been leveled and were a mass of tangleddebris and wreckage.  Photos taken theday of the storm show the Lugert General Store standing alone surrounded byleveled buildings.

There’s a story that two missing boys, who,after a long search in the wreckage by their father, were given up for as beingtwo of the unidentified storm victims loaded in one of the boxcars.  The next day, these missing boys camewalking from the mountains southwest of Lugert unhurt, claiming that thecyclone had taken them up and set them down on the mountain top.  (The boys’ story is probably a tall talethat grew over time, since reports after the storm did not include missing boysor unidentified bodies in a boxcar.)  Thefamilies who had storm cellars and made it to the cellar in time were the luckyones.   After the Lugert tornado, many afarmer in the county decided to build a storm cellar on the west side of hishouse.  The tornado of 1912 left 64wounded and two dead, destroying 41 of the 42 business buildings, and Lugertwas no more.  The dead were Mrs. J.O.(Lee) Stanaland and her daughter Eva. In an Altus Weekly article on the dead and injured on the Thursday afterthe cyclone, great detail is given of the injuries, closing with thisinteresting paragraph: “A peculiar feature of these injuries is that nearly allof the patients have had trouble in locating themselves.  They do not have a clear memory of theevents following the accident.  There isnot a case of skull fracture in the entire number.  There were only two deaths at Lugert.  There were no brains, arms, nor legs scattered along the right ofway from Lugert to Altus.  There wasnobody brought here with a 2X4 thrust through his chest and his eyeballshanging down on his cheeks.  Nopatient’s leg has been sawed off and none of them so far have given up todie.” 

DESERTED TOWN OF LUGERT

The town was soon all but deserted, but it didcontinue to exist on a much smaller scale to serve the outlying farmingcommunity.  Most survivors of the stormleft.  In a 1951 interview for the 50^thanniversary of Kiowa County, Frank told the Star Review about the town doctorwho decided to leave.  “He told me hewas leaving, that he wasn’t going to stay in a place where they had damnedcyclones.  I didn’t like for him to saythat.  I told him they might have acyclone the next place he went to, and he might not get out alive the nexttime.”

With the same courage he had in firstsettling, Lugert rebuilt his buildings, this time of native stone that hehimself quarried from the mountains.  Hestayed on in the one-man town and in spite of the tremendous difficulties keptadding to his ever-growing fortune.  Hebought most of the lots of the evacuating population, the rest going to twoLone Wolf businessmen.  He built manyhouses in an attempt to get people to repopulate the desolate town, butfailed.  In 1940, he still owned everybuilding in the deserted location.   Hecontinued to run the general store and was postmaster.  His daughter, Marguerite Lugert Jarnagin,ran the post office and was the station agent for the Sante Fe depot.  Frank was a widower by then, his wife Katiehaving died five years earlier in 1935. It was in that year, 1940, that the Oklahoma City paper, The Daily Oklahoman, published anarticle about Frank and the town. Preliminary work was underway for a proposed $5 Million dam to be builton the North Fork of the Red River 15 miles above Altus, which would submergethe town of Lugert under 10 feet of water. With the threat of national emergency looming in 1940 as the countryconsidered entry into war, there was uncertainty about whether the proposed damwould be built or not.  Ironically,Frank Lugert had been an early advocate for the dam.  In 1907, he was part of a southwest Oklahoma delegation that wentto El Paso to confer with federal officials over the possibility of irrigationfor southwest Oklahoma.  

The 1940 article described Frank as anindustrious, thrifty and hospitable man, who at the age of 71 welcomedcustomers and visitors to his general store. They tell the story of a few years earlier during the Great Depressionwhen a Lone Wolf doctor announced that he intended to burn $20,000 worth ofnotes and mortgages received in payment for professional services. “Not to beoutdone, Lugert joined with him in the ceremony and added to the bonfire whathe now reluctantly admits was ‘more than $40,000.’  Such an act seems typical of the old gentleman.  He has always been kindhearted and althoughhe has earned all of his money by hard work, he has always been glad to helphis neighbor whose luck wasn’t so good. As a father he has seen to it that his four children, Frank, Jr.,Theresa, Catherine, and Marguerite, have had a better opportunity.  He tells in detail how he ‘paid $4.50 amonth tuition to send those kids to grade and high school in Lone Wolf,’ a townnine miles to the north, before a school was established in Lugert.”

LUGERT SCHOOL

The following description of the school isfrom Pioneering in Kiowa County and was written by Pearson Wright. 

LUGERT,DISTRICT NUMBER 38

The first Lugert School was a one room building of wood, located nearthe railroad tracks.  The teachers wereCharlie Cox and a Mr. Dooley.  Lugertoutgrew this old building.  The secondbuilding, located north of the business district, was constructed of rock andbrick.  It was a story and a half.  The two rooms on the lower floor housed70-100 students.

Some of the teachers were a Mrs. Morey, Theresa Lugert, Mrs. Dahl, RoxieBoulware and a Miss Hammons.  Thisbuilding was destroyed by the Lugert tornado. The district built the third school building in the same location.  It was a brick structure that had twostories.  The second floor was used asan auditorium.  Sid Johnson and AdelineBunch taught in it.  They were the lastLugert teachers. 

Lugert had its fourth school as the result of the raising of thedam.  The building was dismantled andthe new school located about one half mile east, on what is now the ChristianRetreat grounds.

The Churches used the school houses for their services.  The school board was composed of  Bill Pollard, M.C. Baggett and OttoKoeltzow.

Except for five years, two teachers taught through 1946-1947.  Lugert was transferred for one year in1948.  It was then annexed to Lone Wolfand City View district in Greer County.

                I grew up hearingthat my grandmother (Frank’s daughter Theresa) had been the “principal of a tworoom school house.”  When she died, Iinherited her cedar chest and one of the items I found in it was a quilt topwith names of 18 boys and girls, “Mrs. Hammons,” “LGS,” and “1934” embroideredon it.  I’ve suspected it was probably agift made by the mothers of her students and that LGS stood for Lugert Grade(or Grammar) School, but not until I saw “Miss Hammons” in the article abovedid I know for sure.  The students namedon the quilt are:  Audrey L. Lee, VirgilFerguson, Claude Smith, Dorothy Blevins, Lucille Coffia, Wesley Riley, OleetaPollard, Afton Keeton, Sylvia Parker, Hazel Hendricks, Verla M. Buchanan, ThedaCoffia, Noris Austin, Raymond Martin, Homer Riley, Alma Joe Lee, M. E.Stoltenberg, and Wanda Martin.  Ideveloped an interest in quilting, spurred on, no doubt, by my grandmother’sreaction when she saw my first crude machine-made effort at the age of 13.  She said, “It’s not really a quilt unless it’smade by hand.”  Of course, I know that’snot true today, but my Maryland State Fair blue ribbons for the “hand piecedand hand quilted” category can surely be traced to that comment!  I have since quilted the Lugert top from hercedar chest and treasure it as a piece of my Lugert heritage.

                My father, BillLewis, who was born in 1930, was a student at the Lugert School.  During the Depression years, the family wasseparated, with his father working in Oklahoma City, while he and his mother(Theresa Lugert Lewis) lived in a house Frank owned in Lugert.  Theresa taught the 5^th-8^thgrades, while another teacher taught 1^st-4^th.  My dad lived there as a baby and attendedthe Lugert School through the fourth grade (1936-1940) before conditionsimproved and the family was able to live together once again.  He remembers walking to school with hismother, and when the snow was deep, she would pull him in a little redwagon.   There was no electricity fromthe power company in those days.  Theyhad a wind-powered blade that charged a bank of 20 12-volt batteries thatprovided power for the ‘cowboy’ music he remembers on the radio.  Only a few houses in the town were occupiedthen, including his Aunt Marguerite and her husband, “Dutch” Jarnigan, who ranthe grain elevator.  His grandparentslived at the back of the Lugert General Store. He remembers his grandfather Frank offering a stick of peppermint candy,“Shveets for the shveet,” he would say with his German accent.  My dad remembers that most students at theschool were children of farmers in the outlying area, and that the school wouldclose for 2-3 weeks when the cotton was ready for picking.  He tells us he writes with a unique printedhandwriting today because his mom was the teacher and he never had to perfecthis cursive writing.  I don’t know allthe years my grandmother Theresa taught at the Lugert School, but I can surmisethat she taught as early as 1920 (since the census lists the 24-year oldTheresa’s occupation as public schoolteacher) and as late as 1940, with a breakwhen she married in 1926 and probably moved to Amarillo where my Grandfatherworked for Nash Motorcar.  I have aclass picture from 1922 where she and her students are in front of the school.   I’m curious as to whether she actually taughtin the school that was destroyed by the tornado (as the excerpt above claims),as she was only 16 years old when the tornado hit.

A TOWN UNDER WATER

            To make way for the comingdam, the railroad was relocated in 1940 and so were the elevator and depot.  Marguerite Lugert Jarnigan continued asDepot Agent until it was closed in 1952. In January 1942, Frank relocated his store and post office to a newbuilding just east of the elevator, east of Highway 44.  The W. C. Austin Dam proposed in 1940 began constructionin April 1941 and was completed in 1948. The dam was built for flood control, water supply and irrigation, butserves the recreational users as well, with fishing, swimming and boatingaplenty.

Officially named Altus-Lugert Lake, it is moreoften called Lake Lugert by longtime residents.  The Lake holds up to 133,000 acre feet of water when the dam isfull.  The mean depth was reported at 21feet, with a maximum of 71 feet in the 1984 Water Atlas published by theOklahoma Water Resources Board.  Overthe years as water levels reached low points, the foundations of the town havebeen visible.  In the 1980’s bulldozersknocked down parts of old buildings that were considered hazardous to carelessboaters.  During a 1998 drought, waterlevels were low enough for treasure hunters and nostalgia seekers to find oldspoons and coins along the waters edge.

            Frank continued to operatethe store next to the lake.  It was apopular gathering place for fisherman and others in the community and was onlyclosed a few years before his death, when his health began to fail.  He lived to the ripe old age of 89,succumbing in his last years to symptoms that today would probably be diagnosedas Alzheimer’s disease.  He died ofpneumonia on September 1, 1958 and is buried next to his wife Katie in RoseCemetery at Hobart, Oklahoma.  The LoneWolf, Altus, and Kiowa County newspapers all gave homage to Frank’s historiccontributions and the passing of a pioneer. He has no descendants bearing the name of Lugert, since his one son,Frank, Jr. died childless in 1946 of an overdose of sulfa.  It was an experimental drug at the time andhe was given it for pneumonia.  It’s anodd coincidence that both men did not survive pneumonia.  Frank’s three daughters, Theresa Lewis, CatherineBroughton, and Marguerite Jarnagin Jones each had one child.  The three cousins, each an only child, holda special bond with each other and have fond memories of summers spent togetherand visits with their grandfather, Frank. It is to these cousins, Bill Lewis, Kathleen Broughton Gragg, and JimmyJarnagin, that I dedicate this article.

Sources: Czech Republic Archives; Frank Lugert Bible; 1900, 1910, and 1920Oklahoma Census; Marriage and Death Certificates; Naturalization Papers; LandRecords; Obituaries and articles from The Lone Wolf News, Kiowa County StarReview, Altus Times Democrat, The Blair Enterprise, The Hobart Republic, andThe Daily Oklahoman.  Also, “Pioneeringin Kiowa County,” published by the Kiowa County Historical Society, Oklahoma’sWater Atlas, Oklahoma State Gazetteer, and “Ghost Towns of Oklahoma” by John W.Morris, 1978.  Web site sources includethe Czechoslovak Genealogical Society International (www.cgsi.org), Filings of the El Reno LandDistrict of Oklahoma (www.familytreemaker.com),and Jerry Adams token site (http://members.home.net/tokenguy/page34.htm).

Special thanks to Burna Cole of the Museumof the Western Prairie, Altus, Oklahoma; and my newly discovered cousins, DebLugert Torgrimson and Kim Jarnagin Barton.

Terri Lewis Stern

Edgewater, Maryland

May 2001, Updated Oct 2002